The Things We Learn—and the Things We Don’t

I have learned a number of things through the years such as how to operate an espresso machine and the proper way of pruning raspberry canes (to name a few). I learned how to work an espresso machine because I enjoy both the smell of freshly ground coffee and sipping lattes while I work. On the other hand, I consider trimming thorny brambles to be an unpleasant business. No matter how carefully I approach the job, I always come away from the berry patch looking as if my arms have just been attacked by a pair of ferocious cats - yet I enthusiastically put myself through this torture on a regular basis.

There are other things that I have learned in life that I avoid at all costs, including milking cows and making tuna salad. The idea of moving into a 1,500-pound animal’s personal space keeps me up at night, and I can’t imagine what type of person would actually eat tuna on purpose.

Finally, there are things in life that I have never learned and, honestly, have no intention of doing so—such as lion taming or memorizing all the Z entries in a dictionary. I suppose that taming a lion could come in handy if I should ever decide to join the circus, and one never knows when the winning move of a Scrabble game could come down to expertly placing an uncommon word to maximize points. However, all in all, I do not see how the benefits of learning these things would be worth the while. I just do not see how the returns would be worth the investment.

Four Categories of Activities

Hidden in the paragraphs above are several categories of activities that we all likely recognize:

Category 1 - Enjoyable activities that also lead to a rewarding outcome (grinding espresso beans to make a latte). In a classroom, this may be illustrated by a student saying, ‘This lesson is exciting! I can’t wait to apply this later in life!’
Category 2 - Unenjoyable activities that lead to a rewarding outcome (trimming raspberry canes to later enjoy a freshly baked raspberry pie). In a classroom, a student may think, ‘This lesson is kind of boring, but I know paying attention and understanding now will be worth it later.’
Category 3 - Activities that we deem to be insignificant or without a worthwhile reward (memorizing the Z section of the dictionary to help make one a Scrabble champion…someday, maybe). For students, this may sound like, ‘What is the point of this stuff? I wonder if we have any plans this weekend?’
Category 4 - Activities that we generally perceive as a form of punishment that may further lead to more unpleasant consequences (smelling tuna in the kitchen only to have to eat a tuna salad sandwich later). In a classroom, this can be understood as, ‘Zzzzz….’ or disengagement.

In reading over these examples, you could likely create a similar list of activities based on your own preferences, values, and goals. We are generally motivated to learn and complete a task if we believe that there will be some worthwhile benefit for us in the end - even if the process itself is unpleasant. On the other hand, we are far less likely to learn and complete tasks that will lead us to something perceived as unpleasant or a meaningless outcome.

This is generally the nature of motivation for both adults and children. At a foundational level, we all function the same. For a teacher in tune with his students and the dynamics in the classroom, it is possible to predict how students may perceive a specific lesson and to plan ahead or even adapt in the moment to counteract negative reactions to a lesson.

What Can a Teacher Do?

I believe that one of the main points that makes motivation so mysterious is that classroom situations often need to be considered on a case-by-case basis due to the lack of a ‘one size fits all’ approach to addressing a student’s apparent lack of effort. When viewed in the context of a single classroom where a range of motivation levels may be present for the same lesson, dealing with students’ changeable interests can be overwhelming to a teacher whose objective is to make sure students are learning all the necessary concepts. However, I propose that understanding some of the basic ways that motivation influences behavior can equip a teacher to better address situations when a student appears apathetic or disinterested in school.

Extrinsic or Intrinsic Motivation?

Extrinsic motivation is understood as when the source of motivation exists outside of a person, such as when a student knows their performance will be rewarded with a good grade, a piece of candy, or a sticker. I have heard people refer to this practice like dangling a carrot from a stick in front of a donkey to urge it to move forward at the rider’s bidding. While research has shown that this form of motivation is less ideal in a classroom setting where sustained student interest is the goal, it can still serve a purpose and should be a part of every teacher’s toolbox.

On the other hand, intrinsic motivation exists inside a person such as when one’s interests or personal goals drive behavior and choices. In a classroom setting, this is observed when students willingly complete learning activities based on personal interest or perceived value. This form of motivation is generally seen as the ideal, and we, as teachers, would do well to find ways to build internal motivation in students.

Both!

One of the most helpful things for teachers to remember about extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is that it really is not a matter of either/or. Rarely, if ever, are people purely driven by one type of motivation over another. Generally, there are multiple incentives at work driving us to complete a task such as participating in a teacher’s lesson. For me personally, I experience much intrinsic motivation to teach. I find it immensely gratifying to see the transformation of my students throughout the course of a school year. To be fully honest and transparent, however, I recognize that I also teach because it is a paying job that provides me with a wage. If the paychecks stopped coming, I would undoubtedly need to make some difficult decisions because I rely on the incentive promised in my contract to provide housing and food for my family. The intrinsically motivating aspects of teaching (though there are many!) simply would not be enough for me to forego this crucial need. Adults representing many careers would probably say the same thing.

This meshing of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is the same for students, yet too often we approach it as an either/or situation and then wonder why students do not go for it. It may be that we falsely think ‘Using fewer extrinsic motivators in class is good, so using none must be even better!’ I contend that teachers may be better served by carefully selecting sources of extrinsic motivation for their students that will best support them in the development of a real inner passion for learning.

Finally, Some Tips…

Help students create achievable goals for mastery. While there will always be some lessons to learn at school that few, if any, students will find enjoyable, all people, to some extent, enjoy the satisfaction that comes with accomplishing goals - yes, even when there is some type of additional incentive involved. Student goals tend to be most powerful when they are focused on personal mastery of a skill or concept rather than based on achievement (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Mastery goals (as opposed to performance-based goals) mostly remove the temptation for students to compare themselves with others and to instead focus on learning.
Incorporate students’ innate curiosity. Interest is one of the most powerful forms of intrinsic motivation, so building it through tapping into students’ curiosity can be a powerful tool for teachers. Incorporating something new, different, unexpected, or challenging can be a quick way to boost student interest in even the most mundane lessons. Research has even shown that students approaching a lesson with a curious mindset are more likely to retain information long term (Gruber et al., 2014).
Reduce anxiety or other negative emotions. This is likely not shocking to most people, but students experiencing high levels of anxiety about school are less likely to feel motivated to learn and participate. While there may be a few select students who will thrive under high pressure (e.g., your future trauma surgeons or crisis counselors), most students will not do well in that kind of environment. Research has supported the fact that we all tend to experience our peak performance under the right amount of pressure - not too much or too little (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). Therefore, if you have students frequently disengaging in your classroom, you may wish to evaluate if students are feeling too much (or too little) pressure.
Without digging too deep, other motivators for teachers to consider include students’ inherent needs for excitement and activity, a desire for autonomy (having the ability to make a personal choice), and feeling socially connected to a group.

If you are one of the teachers unsure if it is truly possible to motivate even the most apathetic students, take heart! It is indeed possible to create an environment where each student will engage in learning, even when the content might not initially spark enthusiasm. By understanding the interplay between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and applying the proper tools, teachers can help guide students toward higher levels of engagement. It is never about removing all the things that students find disagreeable; it is about helping them to broaden their perspectives and to find value in the learning process. Motivation may be mysterious, but with the proper tools and a motivated teacher, it is a mystery worth solving!

References

Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256-273.

Gruber, M. J., Gelman, B. D., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84, 486-496.

Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. The Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18(5), 459-482.

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